Reasons behind the success and failure of the US in Vietnam
An overview of the Cold War
The cold war was a period of political and military tension between the two major world powers at the time, the USA and the Soviet Union which began after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The USA and its allies were capitalist and democratic; the Soviet Union and the eastern bloc countries were totalitarian and communist.
In 1949 fearing a Soviet attack the western democratic countries led by the United States joined together to form a defensive alliance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The Soviet Union set up the Warsaw Pact of communist controlled east European countries.
The cold war is named as such, because the two enemies never actually engaged each other due to the fear of all out nuclear war. Instead the cold war was a war fought by proxy. A prime example of this was the war in Vietnam. Rather than fight the USA head on, the soviets financed the North Vietnamese (Vietcong) who in turn would engage the USA in a war.
An Overview of the war in Vietnam
People may ask what interests the USA had in a country on the other side of the world?
Vietnam was important to the USA as it was in a strategic trade position around the Indian ocean. Also the fear of communism spreading was intense, it was thought that if Vietnam fell to communism then Cambodia, Laos, Bangladesh,Thailand and all other South East Asian countries would follow suit, this is what is known as the 'domino effect'.
In 1963 Ngo Dinh Diem the South Vietnamese president was overthrown and killed by his own generals causing political confusion.The situation continued to deteriorate putting the Communists in reach of a victory,which the USA could not allow.
However the USA needed a reason in order to be able directly attack Vietnam, this came through the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964 when the destroyer USS Maddox was sunk by North Vietnamese torpedoes, however it is disputed whether this ever happened.
In 1965 Operation Rolling Thunder begins, this was an attempt by the USA to bomb the Vietcong into submission, the prime target was the Ho Chi Minh trail, the main supply route used by the North to supply the guerrillas in the south, however part of the Ho Chi Minh trail ran through neighbouring Cambodia so the USA could not bomb this section as that would be a declaration of war. On April 7th 1965 the US approached North Vietnam with economic aid in exchange for peace, North Vietnam reject the offer, President Johnson in turn increases US' combat to more than 60,000 troops in Vietnam.
June 27 1965- General Westmoreland launches an offensive operation by American ground forces occupying NLF territory northwest of Saigon.
January 8 1966- The largest American operation was launched, Operation Crimp stationed 8000 troops to capture the Vietcong headquarters for Saigon however the failed to find the base.
January 30- February 3 1968- On the Tet holiday, Vietcong units attacked more than 100 towns and cities in South Vietnam, North Vietnam lost 37000 troops, including many political officers, the USA lost 2500 troops. However the North Vietnamese played on the affect they had on the heart of US operations in Saigon.
November 1 1968- Operation Rolling Thunder comes to an end after 3 and a half years, America lost 900 aircraft and 818 pilots, 120 Vietnamese planes were lost.
December 13 1972- Peace talks in Paris between America and North Vietnam break down
January 27 1973- A cease fire is signed by all parties fighting in Vietnam
March 1973- American soldiers leave South Vietnam, marines and military advisors remain. Over 3 million Americans served in the war, 58000 were killed, 1000 were missing in action (MIA) and 150000 were wounded.
April 30 1975- North Vietnamese tanks entered Saigon, this was the end of the war. Nearly 1 million Vietcong and 250,000 South Vietnamese soldiers were killed in the 15 years of the Vietnam war.
USA Equipment and Tactics
On paper the USA were by far the stronger of the two in the Vietnam war, their arsenal consisted of a range of planes, helicpoters,bombs, biological and chemical weapons, and the AR15(M16) rifle.
Planes:
The first plane of note used in the Vietnam war was the B52-stratofortress bomber, which was used in Operation Rolling Thunder and the continued bombing of Vietnam up until the end of the war dropping more than 6.3 million tons of bombs.
The other plane of note is the North American F-100D Super Sabre which was used extensively between 1954-1971 in ground attack, close support and reconnaissance roles.
Helicopters: The Huey helicopter was used in Vietnam for 3 main roles, medical evacuation, transporting troops and close range support. This was the first time this form of warfare had been used.
Biological and chemical weapons:
-Agent Blue was used in Vietnam to destroy the rice crops and bamboo. In total 2,166,656 gallons were used.
-Agent Green was used in Vietnam for defoliation of jungle cover. In total 8,202 gallons were used.
-Agent Orange was also used in Vietnam for defoliation of jungle cover. In total 10,316,929 gallons were used.
-Napalm was a thickening gelling agent generally mixed with petroleum, it's use is mainly anti-personnel, but was also used to destroy forests, tanks and buildings and was devastatingly effective.
A US army source talking about napalm reported-
"We sure are pleased with those backroom boys at Dow. The original product wasn’t so hot - if the gooks were quick they could scrape it off. So the boys started adding polystyrene - now it sticks like shit to a blanket. But if the gooks jumped under water it stopped burning, so they started adding Willie Peter (white phosphorus) so’s to make it burn better. And just one drop is enough, it’ll keep on burning right down to the bone so they die anyway from phosphorus poisoning"
Rifles: The AR15(designated the M16 by the US military) was used in vietnam however it was plagued with problems; They often jammed leaving soldiers in a battle without a gun. However this wasn't surprising as the US military issued these guns without a cleaning kit and when they needed to be reassembled there were so many components it would take forever. Also the chambers of the early models rusted in the humid environment of Vietnam.
Tactics used by the US military: Search and Destroy tactics were used by the US military this was where villages were searched for Vietcong soldiers and weapons, they were destroyed and then the US troops retreated, however over the course of the war this changed from being a systematic tactic to a destructive one where the US just destroyed villages with little or no evidence of the Vietcong being there. The most well documented evidence of this is the My Lai massacre in which between 347 and 504 unarmed civilians were killed.
Successes and failures of the USA tactics:
.Successes:
The USA had managed to kill over 1 million Vietcong while losing only a comparitively small 58000 troops.
The USA had practised and come to grips with using the Huey helicopters for dropping troops onto the battlefield which would later come to serve them well.
.Failures:
.Operation Rolling Thunder cost a ridiculous amount of money and it took over 60 rounds (anything from bombs to bullets) to kill just one Vietcong and the US lost over 900 planes.
.The use of napalm on the battlefield caused outcry back at home and alienated the locals from the army as many of them were caught up in the crossfire.
.The search and destroy tactics and the destruction of innocent villages often pushed many civillians into joining the VC as they were disillusioned and annoyed with the US' tactics.
-Underestimating the VC
Vietcong equipment and tactics
On paper the Vietcong were by far the weaker opponent as they had less money, fewer less advanced weapons and a much smaller army. Their equipment consisted of MiGs and AK-47s supplied by the soviets and booby-traps made by scrap the US troops had discarded.
However this wasn't what allowed the VC to succeed, no that was their tactic of guerilla warfare much like the Koreans used in the Korean war,which plays on effective use of the environment.
Planes: Mig-17 and Mig-21s were supersonic jets provided by the Soviets to combat the USA's aerial dominance, they benefited from close combat machine guns that they US planes lacked as their main function was to bomb the enemy not to be successful in dogfights
Rifles: AK-47 rifles provided again by the soviets were alot more effective than the USA's AR15 rifles, as they had fewer components and were much more reliable and capable with dealing with the conditions in Vietnam
Tactics used by the Vietcong: Guerilla warfare making use of the Vietnamese terrain, there were no front lines and the VC would carry out hit and run attacks on troops and outposts before retreating into the vast network of underground tunnels the VC had constructed.They also played on the fact VC soldiers were indistinguishable from general citizens which enabled them to mix in and sneak up on the US troops
Booby traps:
Punji traps were sharpened bamboo sticks placed in a hole which would be covered with leaves and would impale any soldiers who walked over it.
Grenade traps- Two cans are strapped to trees either side of a track with grenades with the safety pin removed placed inside them. A trip wire is attached to both grenades, when the victim's foot pulls the trip wire the grenades are pulled from the cans causing instant detenation.
Successess and failures of the Vietcong tactics:
.Successes:
Managed to make the most of the landscape to outwit a superior enemy
Spent very little money compared with the US
Kept the villagers happy and onside unlike the US who alienated them
The Tet Offensive managed to strike at the heart of US operations in Saigon
Used discarded material to their advantage to create booby traps
The VC did not fail to appreciate the strength of the US
.Failures
During the Tet Offensive the Vietcong incurred extremely heavy losses
The Tet Offensive failed to gain complete control of the south despite that being its aim
The VC failed to defeat the US militarily as the war was officially ended by a ceasefire
Reasons behind anti-war sentiment in America
An overview of the influence the media had during the Vietnam war
Vietnam was not only a new experience for the Americans in the sense of the tactics used by the enemy, but also that of the media. For the first time ever the footage and images from the war were reported back home in newspapers and on the television.The army and its actions, successes and failings were being scrutinised by the public leading to a massive rise in anti-war movements from the end of the 1960s onwards.
A list of figures shows just how big the influence of television and newspapers were in the 1960s.
Respondents were asked "from what medium did they get their news"? (multiple answers were allowed)
-In 1964:
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| Televised footage of a napalm attack |
56% said newspapers
26% said radio
-In 1972:
64% said television
50% said newspapers
26% said radio
8% said magazines
The Tet Offensive was a turning point for the army as media coverage they now received predominantly negative coverage.Before Tet 62 percent of their stories were reported as victories for the USA, after Tet this fell to 44 percent.
Whereas Tet was considered the turning point for media coverage. The My Lai massacre is seen without a doubt as the 'point of no return' for the army in terms of media coverage. The US' position in Vietnam had become indefensible and anti-war sentiment had reached its highest levels, returning veterans were no longer praised but instead were mocked, abused and avoided.
In the attempt to implement vietnamisation (the handing over of power back to the south Vietnamese) and to rush through the Paris peace talks..
The US had failed to learn that the war had to be won not only in Vietnam but by garnering approval back home in the US.
By failing to do this the US destroyed any world credibility it once had but also created anti-war sentiment in America which is still felt even today.
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| Controversial My Lai images seen around the world. |
In the attempt to implement vietnamisation (the handing over of power back to the south Vietnamese) and to rush through the Paris peace talks..
The US had failed to learn that the war had to be won not only in Vietnam but by garnering approval back home in the US.
By failing to do this the US destroyed any world credibility it once had but also created anti-war sentiment in America which is still felt even today.
When the Vietnam war escalated and was wholeheartedly backed by the White House President Johnson failed to realise the racial nightmare that American involvement in Vietnam would create.Vietnam coincided with the protests of the Civil Rights Movement and the rise of Black Power during 1960s America.
Amidst increasing tension American soldiers embraced Black Power culturally and politically.Vietnam was America's first racially integrated conflict, black soldiers had fought in all of America's previous conflicts but in segregated units.
Vietnam was a war against communism it was a war waged to promote democracy as opposed to enforced dictatorship. Black Americans perhaps foolishly trusted that if they defended democracy abroad they would receive it at home.
Nevertheless legislation still segregated blacks in schools, in employment and socially. Schaller depicts the situation "The US was fighting enemies who proclaimed the right to enslave or exterminate inferior races. Presumably American citizens were united in detesting such hateful ideologies. Yet American minorities at home still faced discrimination and abuse.
The national march on Washington in 1963 in which over 200,000 blacks and white participated, amidst widespread media coverage, represented on of the most powerful protests in American history.Symbolically in front of the Lincoln Memorial, Martin Luther King called for black Americans to be included in the American Dream.Black soldiers and the draft: Draft boards were,by their very nature, divisive and discriminatory: in 1967 no black Americans were present on the boards in Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana. Jack Helms, a member of the Louisiana draft board, was a Grand Wizard in the Ku Klux Klan. He described the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People, a black civil rights group, as "a communist-inspired, anti-Christ, sex perverted group of tennis short beatniks"
Soon rumours abounded that the US government were using the war as a form of genocide.Money was being pumped into Vietnam instead of poor black communities. Black Panther Eldridge Cleaver noted the contradictory situation, and complained: Black Americans were asked to die for the system in Vietnam, in Watts ( a black suburb of Los Angeles) they are asked to die by it.
Propaganda was used by the Vietcong to undermine the black soldiers' morale: leaflets were dropped describing American army racism and also images depicting US policemen beating black civil rights workers. The Vietnamese would often call out "Go home soul man" to black soldiers on the battleground, shooting only at the white soldiers.
The civil Rights Act passed in 1968in America, resulting in better employment and housing for African-Americans put pressure on the forces to respond to the increasing crisis. General Chapman admitted in 1969 "we've got a problem". Investigations on discrimination and prejudices were addressed in all areas, from the lack of suitable provisions for black servicemen to the small number of black officers.
An overview of the Anti-War movement in America during the Vietnam war
The emergence of the anti war movement
The earliest protesters against the war came out of the civil rights movement. Malcolm X and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party for example, came out against the war in 1965
The anti-war movement started as a small minority, with student sit ins and demonstrations. But as the war dragged on, its social and economic consequences triggered a much larger, more effective opposition. When the bombings began, a Boston commons protest attracted 100 people. This grew to a massive 100,000 by 1969, with 2 million in total protesting across the country.
By 1969 there were 500 underground newspapers in high schools and protests had been held on 232 college campuses across the country with 3,652 people arrested and 956 suspended or expelled.
The existence of the draft, where all young people could be randomly selected to serve the army, led to mass draft dodging. Many middle class students were able to dodge the draft, leaving working class and African-American youth to be the majority forced to fight.By early 1968 40,000 soldiers were dead and 250,000 were wounded, with the numbers growing daily.
The media has attempted to portray the anti-war movement as being mainly made up of well-off students.However with working class youth on the front lines in Vietnam, opposition to the war was actually strongest in working class communities. A University of Michigan poll in June 1966 showed that 27% of people with a college education favoured immediate withdrawal from Vietnam, compared to 40% of those with only a grade school education.
In 1971 300,000 people took part in an anti-war demonstration in Washington D.C. This particular protest involved many veterans of the Vietnam war. During the protest they through away their ribbons as they had become ashamed to have anything associated with the war, especially objects glorifying their involvement.
The Kent state shootings
During the 1968 US presidential election, Richard Nixon promised "peace with honour' for the Vietnam War.
However on April 30th 1970 President Nixon announced during a televised speech to the nation that American forces had invaded Cambodia. Despite Nixon stating that this was a response to North Vietnamese aggression, many Americans saw this as an expansion or lengthening of the Vietnam War.
In response to this announcement students across America began to protest.
Protests by students at Kent State University in Ohio began on may 1 1970, at noon students held a protest rally on campus, built a bonfire and threw beer bottles at police.
On May 2nd during a protest by the ROTC building on campus someone set an abandoned building on fire.The National Guard entered the campus and used tear gas to control the crowd.
During the Evening of May 3rd, another protest rally was held on campus which was again dispersed by the National Guard.
On May 4th another rally was scheduled on the campus.Before the rally began the National Guard ordered those congregated to disperse, as they refused to leave tear gas was used in an attempt to disperse the crowd. However due to the wind this was ineffective, the National Guard then advanced upon the crowd with bayonets attached to their rifles.After the crowd dispersed they turned around and began to retrace their steps.
For some reason during their retreat, nearly a dozen guardsmen turned around and began firing at the still scattered students. Some claim there was a verbal order to fire, four students were killed and nine were wounded.
The Kent State massacre angered many and incited additional protests at schools across the country.
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| This photo became iconic in highlighting the consequences of napalm |
Many protests were also launched against the Dow Chemical Company who were responsible for the production and sale of napalm to the US army which was used to atrocious consequence on the locals in Vietnam.
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